| "100% of your design documentation is | | | | or "parts") are cataloged and |
| contained in | | | | cross-referenced to each other. Consider a |
| | | | parts manifest as included in a major |
| the specifications of your information | | | | appliance maintenance bookley (or lawn/garden |
| resources." | | | | tool), I am sure this type of diagram is |
| | | | familiar to any homeowner who has reviewed |
| - Bryce's LawThere are many companies today, | | | | product maintenance/warranty booklets.Every |
| most overseas, still tackling major systems | | | | part in the product is identified by number |
| projects particularly in the areas of banking | | | | and name (see section to the right in the |
| and manufacturing. These mammoth application | | | | figure). To the left side in the figure is a |
| development efforts contrast sharply with | | | | schematic showing how each part relates to |
| American companies who have failed in such | | | | the other parts and, as such, represents the |
| undertakings and are now content with | | | | assembly of the product for maintenance |
| chipping away at systems, program-by-program, | | | | purposes.The concept of "Bill of Materials" |
| with the hope that disjointed software will | | | | provides the means to inventory resources |
| somehow/someday interface with each other. | | | | thus allowing us to share and re-use them. |
| Whereas foreign competitors talk in terms of | | | | For example, many of the parts shown in |
| enormous systems with hundreds of programs | | | | Figure 2 are re-used in other lawnmower |
| and millions of lines of code; large | | | | models offered by the manufacturer. How can |
| integrated systems tend to intimidate the | | | | we share and re-use resources without such a |
| most ardent of American developers. But this | | | | concept? The answer is simple: we cannot. |
| is not so much a story about competition as | | | | And this explains why there is considerable |
| it is about understanding design | | | | redundancy in our information resources and |
| complexity.People in both the east and the | | | | work effort. It also suggests most of our |
| west recognize the design and development of | | | | design decisions are maintained "by the seat |
| a total system is no small task. A system | | | | of our pants." Most college courses |
| can consist of many business processes, | | | | involving computing are unfamiliar with the |
| procedures, programs, inputs, outputs, files, | | | | Bill of Materials concept. Their focus is on |
| records, data elements, etc. The problem | | | | programming and file design, and little |
| lies in how to best control these information | | | | else.The concept of "Bill of Materials" has |
| resources and the design decisions associated | | | | three objectives: |
| with them. Two approaches are typically | | | | |
| used: progressively break the problem into | | | | To uniquely identify each resource by number |
| smaller, more manageable pieces, or; tackle a | | | | and name (as well as by aliases). Names are |
| minuscule portion of the problem at a time. | | | | nice, but numbers offer a more precise way to |
| Whereas the former requires a long term | | | | uniquely identify a resource. Identification |
| perspective, the latter can show a quick | | | | is critical. After all, we cannot share and |
| return, which is more appealing to a company | | | | re-use something if we do not know it |
| with a "fast track" mentality.Some time ago | | | | exists.To record the part's specifications. |
| we conducted a study of customer application | | | | Thus providing a way to determine if the part |
| development projects. Our research centered | | | | can be re-used in another product (thereby |
| on two types of projects: those aimed at | | | | promoting the sharing of parts and |
| building a total system, and; those aimed at | | | | eliminating redundancy).To record where the |
| building a single program. One obvious | | | | part is used in a product(s) (aka |
| conclusion was that the number of information | | | | "Where-used"). This specifies the |
| resources used in a major system was | | | | relationship of parts to each other and, |
| considerably more than in a program.However, | | | | thereby, their assembly. This is also |
| the key observation made in the study was | | | | extremely useful for "impact analysis" |
| that there is a finite number of design | | | | whereby we can analyze where the part is used |
| decisions associated with each type of | | | | in all of our products, not just one, which |
| information resource. As an example, for an | | | | is vital for making intelligent decisions |
| output, decisions have to be made as to its | | | | about modifying a part. For example, if we |
| physical media (screen or report), size | | | | change the specifications of a part in one |
| (number of characters), messages associated | | | | product, this will severely impact other |
| with it, etc. For a data element, its | | | | products it is also used in. |
| logical and physical characteristics must be | | | | |
| specified (definition, source, label, size, | | | | By controlling parts in this manner, a |
| class, length, etc.). For a program, the | | | | product's design is fully |
| language to be used, program logic, required | | | | |
| file structures, etc. These design decisions | | | | documented.The "Bill of Material" concept |
| can be simple or complex; regardless, they | | | | can easily accommodate information resources |
| are all required in order to design a system | | | | and offer the same benefits of sharing and |
| or a program. When we multiply the number of | | | | re-using components. By doing so, we can |
| design decisions by the number of information | | | | easily manage the 50,000 design decisions |
| resources, we get an | | | | accompanying a system design project. Our |
| | | | system/software products may be less tangible |
| idea of the magnitude of a systems design | | | | than an automobile, aircraft or lawnmower, |
| project versus the design of a single program | | | | but we can still apply the same concept to |
| (see Figure 1).FIGURE 1NUMBER OF RESOURCES IN | | | | their control.Therefore, an IRM Repository |
| AVERAGE SYSTEMS PROJECT: 2,006 | | | | should have the ability to identify, specify, |
| | | | and cross-reference all of the resources |
| NUMBER OF DESIGN DECISIONS TO BE MADE: | | | | mentioned in Figure 1. This can certainly be |
| 49,850NUMBER OF RESOURCES IN AVERAGE PROGRAM | | | | done manually with paper but this may lead to |
| PROJECT: 98 | | | | bureaucratic and access problems for |
| | | | developers. Instead, automation is |
| NUMBER OF DESIGN DECISIONS TO BE MADE: | | | | recommended. There are several such |
| 2,070NOTE: Decisions are design oriented | | | | commercial products on the market, but it is |
| only; they do not include Project Management | | | | also fairly easy to create such software |
| related decisions (such as those associated | | | | using today's Data Base Management Systems |
| with planning, estimating and | | | | (DBMS) which are now fairly easy to define |
| scheduling).From this perspective, the | | | | and relate resources (they also provide |
| average system design project is nearly 25 | | | | excellent documentation services).The IRM |
| times larger than the average software design | | | | should be viewed as the hub of all |
| project in terms of complexity. As a | | | | development efforts and provide the means to |
| footnote, our findings also revealed the | | | | interface (import/export) with a myriad of |
| "average" system design project is seven | | | | other development tools; e.g., CASE, |
| times larger than a "complex" software design | | | | prototyping aids, program generators, etc. |
| project.This discrepancy in system/software | | | | Such tools will use the intelligence of the |
| complexity provides a clue as to how | | | | information resources as contained in the IRM |
| companies address the problem. Since a | | | | to function accordingly. As an example, a |
| software design project is smaller and | | | | program generator should be able to interpret |
| seemingly more palatable to implement than a | | | | the program and file specifications in order |
| total systems project, some companies will | | | | to produce the necessary code. Such |
| focus on software engineering tools and | | | | development tools should also have the |
| techniques, and abandon total systems | | | | ability to turn around and import resource |
| engineering practices. This is one reason | | | | specifications back into the IRM. This is |
| why programming tools enjoy popularity | | | | particularly useful for documenting existing |
| today.Contrast this with the size of Japan's | | | | systems/software (aka "Reverse |
| "Best" project to build the country's next | | | | Population").For information on how to create |
| generation of on-line banking systems. This | | | | an IRM Repository, please see => concept of |
| was a major application development effort | | | | "Bill of Materials" is an important part of |
| resulting in 72 "average" systems; a | | | | an overall strategy to implement an |
| considerably larger project than what is | | | | "Information Factory" environment to design |
| typically addressed in the United | | | | and develop information resources. But this |
| States.MANAGING DECISIONSThere are two | | | | will be the subject of a separate |
| aspects to handling decisions: how they are | | | | paper.CONCLUSIONThis philosophy to managing |
| formulated, and how they are | | | | design complexity is no different than what |
| controlled.Trying to make nearly 50,000 | | | | is found in the engineering and manufacturing |
| design decisions in one step is not only an | | | | of any product. Engineers break their design |
| impossible task, it is a highly impractical | | | | projects into smaller stages so that reviews |
| way of operating. Just like the design of | | | | can be performed and revisions implemented. |
| any product, a system must be designed in | | | | A "bill of materials" processor is used to |
| gradual phases in such a way as it becomes | | | | track |
| possible to review and refine the design. In | | | | |
| other words, the 50,000 design decisions will | | | | the parts or a product and how they |
| be made throughout the life of a development | | | | interrelate; which is no different in intent |
| project, not all at once.It is the | | | | than the IRM tool.For people imbued in |
| responsibility of a systems engineering | | | | programming, it is difficult to think in |
| methodology to define the sequence of events | | | | terms of "parts" as described herein, but it |
| for designing a system. As such, the | | | | is a practical solution and can be applied to |
| methodology represents the channel for | | | | any development effort, large or small. |
| formulating decisions. Breaking a complex | | | | Standardization and integration of |
| system design down into smaller, more | | | | information resources is built by design, not |
| manageable pieces, also provides for: | | | | by accident.Without a formalized methodology |
| | | | for design or an IRM tool to record design |
| Parallel development and delivery of | | | | decisions, a major system design is |
| portions of the system | | | | incomprehensible; there are just too many |
| | | | variables for the human mind to remember or |
| (concurrent development within a single | | | | control using manual techniques. It is not |
| project).An environment conducive for | | | | that analysts do not want to take on a major |
| building quality into a product (as opposed | | | | systems design project, they simply cannot. |
| to inspecting for quality afterwards).The | | | | They lack the organization and proper tools |
| formulation of Project Management related | | | | to perform the job effectively. Because of |
| decisions (such as estimating and scheduling | | | | this, they default to the things they know |
| the delivery of systems, in part or in full). | | | | best, programming, and tackle systems in |
| | | | piecemeal.The difference between east and |
| This philosophy of design is no different | | | | west here is not one of working harder, but |
| than any other product | | | | smarter. The Japanese and Europeans are |
| | | | simply better organized and equipped to |
| design/development effort, such as | | | | perform system design than their American |
| shipbuilding, automobile manufacturing, | | | | counterparts. This can be attributed, in |
| bridge building, etc. All require a specific | | | | large part, to management's sensitivity to |
| methodology that breaks the product down to | | | | the role systems play in a company. Because |
| its sub-assemblies and parts; thereby | | | | of this, they are not afraid to tackle large |
| organizing the specification of parts and the | | | | endeavors, while American companies view such |
| design decisions associated with | | | | undertakings as seemingly too massive to |
| them.Managing the decision making process for | | | | undertake. As such, they sidestep large |
| even the smallest of application development | | | | projects in favor of smaller projects that |
| projects can be a huge undertaking. We | | | | may address only a portion of the overall |
| estimate there are approximately 500 design | | | | problem. This is resulting in the unsettling |
| decisions associated in a small software | | | | situation where our competitors are rapidly |
| design project (as compared to more than | | | | becoming the world's systems engineers, while |
| 125,000 decisions in the typical complex | | | | Americans become the world's software |
| system design project). To record and | | | | engineers.For more information on our |
| control these decisions requires something | | | | philosophies of Information Resource |
| more sophisticated than just paper and | | | | Management (IRM), please see the |
| pencil; it requires an automated "Information | | | | "Introduction" section of "PRIDE" at => Bryce |
| Resource Manager" (IRM), a software tool | | | | is the Managing Director of M. Bryce & |
| capable of inventorying and documenting an | | | | Associates (MBA) of Palm Harbor, Florida, a |
| enterprise's information resources.Whether | | | | management consulting firm specializing in |
| you call it an "IRM", a "Repository", a "Data | | | | Information Resource Management (IRM). Mr. |
| Dictionary" or whatever, the philosophical | | | | Bryce has over 30 years of experience in the |
| heart of the product is based on the age-old | | | | field. He is available for training and |
| concept of "Bill of Materials" whereby | | | | consulting on an international basis. |
| resources (also referred to as "components" | | | | |